History

Pre 18th Century

The original inhabitants of modern day Zambia were bushmen (also called San), who were hunters and gatherers living a nomadic life, with stone age technology. The bushmen were the only inhabitants of the region until the 4th century, when Bantu people began to immigrate from the north. They had far more developed technology - they were farmers and had iron and copper tools and weapons, as well as knowledge about pottery. They were sedentary and lived in small self sufficient villages with a few houses, growing sorghum and beans, and keeping cattle and goats.

Since the early farmers practised slash and burn agriculture, they had to constantly move further south when the soil was exhausted. The indigenous bushmen were either assimilated into the new culture or pushed aside into areas not suitable for agriculture.

With the introduction of agriculture, the population grew, and more and more land became cultivated. By the 11th and 12th centuries a more advanced society was beginning to emerge. Even though most villages still were self sufficient, long distance trade was developing. Copper mining was intensified, and copper crosses were probably used as a currency. Ivory carvings and cotton textiles were other export commodities. The increase in trade resulted in larger political units and more complex social structures.

The period between the 16th and the 19th centuries saw the emergence of organised Iron Age kingdoms as well as widespread immigration. Four kingdoms was established in this period: the Kazembe-Lunda in the north, centred around the lower Luapula River; the Bemba in the north east; the Chewa in the east; and the Lozi in the west centred around the upper Zambezi River.

Contact with Europeans

The territory of the present Zambia, being far inland, did not have direct contact with non-Africans until relatively recently in its history. Arab and Portuguese traders were visiting by the 18th Century. The first recorded visits by Europeans to Zambia were Manoel Caetano Pereira (a trader of mixed Goanese and Portuguese descent) in 1796 and Dr Francisco Jos Maria de Lacerda (an explorer) in 1798. Both came via Tete in Mozambique to Mwata Kazembe's capital to try to obtain the chief's agreement to a Portuguese trade route between their territories of Mozambique and Angola. Lacerda died within a few weeks of arriving at Kazembe's but left a valuable journal which was carried back to Tete by his priest and which was later translated into English by the explorer Sir Richard Burton.

The first Briton to set his foot on Zambian soil was David Livingstone. In 1851, he started his famous exploration of the upper Zambezi River, and in 1855 he became the first European to see Mosi-oa-Tunya, the waterfalls on the Zambezi River, which he named after Queen Victoria, and the Zambian town near the falls is named after him. Livingstone later died in Zambia in 1873.

When the first Europeans arrived, the most powerful states in pre-colonial Zambia were the kingdom of Barotseland in the upper Zambezi, and the kingdom of Mwata Kazembe on the Luapula.

The Lozi people of Barotseland had prevented access to their land by Arab and Portuguese traders. When the kingdom was first established is uncertain, but it was certainly in existence by the 18th century, the Lozi calling themselves Aluya and their country Ngulu. Its ruler was called the Litunga, and had two capitals: in the dry season he stayed at Lealui, while in the rainy season he moved to Limulunga, a move that is still celebrated in the Kuomboka annual festival.

The first certain historical fact concerning Barotseland is the trek of the Makololo, a clan of the South-african Basotho or Tswana people. Utterly defeated by Shaka's new Zulu kingdom in the 1820s, the Makololo under the guide of Sebetwane were forced to march north until they conquered the Lozi and became the aristocracy of Barotseland, with Sebitwane as new Litunga.

Sebetwane proved an able leader, and is spoken of with warm respect by David Livingstone, who met him in 1851 shortly before his death. He was succeeded by his daughter Mamochisane, who then stepped down in favour of her half-brother Sekeletu. However, after his death in 1863 the Makololo empire began to collapse; a year later internal dissension in the ruling class brought to a revolt by the Lozi that is said to have exterminated the Makololo aristocracy and forced the survivors to migrate to present-day Malawi.

1888-1964: Colonial Period

In 1888, Cecil Rhodes, spearheading British commercial and political interests in Central Africa, obtained a mineral rights concession from local chiefs. In the same year, Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe), were proclaimed a British sphere of influence. The territory was initially administered by Rhodes' British South Africa Company, which showed little interest for the province and used it mainly as a supplier of cheap labour.

In 1923, the British government decided not to renew the company's charter; as a result, Southern Rhodesia was annexed formally and granted self-government in 1923. After negotiations, the administration of Northern Rhodesia was transferred to the British colonial office in 1924 as a protectorate, with Livingstone as capital. It was later transferred to Lusaka in 1935. A Legislative Council was established, of which five members were elected by the small European minority (only 4,000 people), but none by the African population.

In 1928, important discoveries were made in the region that became known as Copperbelt - enormous copper deposits were found, transforming Northern Rhodesia from a prospective land of colonisation for white farmers to a copper exporter. By 1938, it produced 13% of world's extracted copper. The sector was immediately monopolised by the Anglo American Corporation (AAC, North-American) and the Rhodesian Selection Trust (RST, South African), who would control the sector until independence.

The poor security conditions and increased taxes helped to trigger a strike of African mineworkers in 1935, known as the Copperbelt strike. The strike was crushed by the authorities that killed 13 miners in the repression.

During the Second World War, white miners came out on strike. Realising the importance of their products for the war, they demanded higher salaries. This strike was followed by another by African mineworkers.

Before the war, there had been talks about merging the two Rhodesias; however, the process had been halted by the British authorities, and brought to an absolute stop by the war. Finally, in 1953, both North and South Rhodesia were joined with Nyasaland (now Malawi) to form the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland. Northern Rhodesia was the centre of much of the turmoil and crisis that characterised the federation in its last years. At the core of the controversy were insistent African demands for greater participation in government and European fears of losing political control.

A two-stage election held in October and December 1962 resulted in an African majority in the legislative council and an uneasy coalition between the two African nationalist parties. The council passed resolutions calling for Northern Rhodesia's secession from the federation and demanding full internal self-government under a new constitution and a new national assembly based on a broader, more democratic franchise. On December 31, 1963, the federation was dissolved, and Northern Rhodesia became the Republic of Zambia on October 24, 1964.

1964: Independence

At independence, despite its considerable mineral wealth, Zambia faced major challenges. Domestically, there were few trained and educated Zambians capable of running the government, and the economy was largely dependent on foreign expertise.

The United National Independence Party (UNIP) won the first legislative election in Zambia, gaining 55 of the 75 seats. The Zambian African National Congress won 10 seats, and the National Progressive Party won all the 10 seats reserved for whites. Kenneth Kaunda was elected prime minister, and later the same year president, as the country adopted a presidential system.

Kaunda adopted an ideology of African socialism, close to that of Julius Nyerere in Tanzania. Economical policies focused on central planning and nationalisation, and a system of one party rule was put in place.

1972-1991: One Party Rule

In 1968 Kaunda was re-elected as president, running unopposed. During the following years Zambia adopted a one party system, and in 1972, all political parties except UNIP were banned; this was formalised in a new constitution adopted in 1973. The constitution framed a system called "one-party participatory democracy", which in practise meant that UNIP became the sole political factor in the country. It provided for a strong president and a unicameral National Assembly. National policy was formulated by the Central Committee of UNIP. The cabinet executed the central committee's policy. In legislative elections, only candidates running for UNIP was allowed to participate. In the presidential elections, the only candidate allowed to run was the one elected as president of UNIP at the party's general conference. In this way Kaunda was re-elected unopposed in 1973, 1978, 1983 and 1988.

The Economy

After independence, Zambia adopted a left wing economical policy; private companies were nationalised and incorporated into big state owned conglomerates. The government's goal was to be self sufficient, which it sought to achieve through import substitution. At first the plan succeeded and the economy grew steadily, but by the mid 70's the economy started to decline drastically. During the period between 1975 and 1990, Zambia's economy dropped with approximately 30%.

This decline was partly due to the fact that the Zambian economy was heavily dependent on the copper industry, which had been nationalised. During the 70's the price of copper sank drastically, resulting in a large deficit for the state owned enterprise. To deal with the crisis, instead of issuing structural reforms, Zambia took on loans from the International Monetary Fund and the Worldbank, hoping that copper prices would rise again soon.

Foreign Policy

Internationally, Zambia's sympathies lay with forces opposing colonial or white-dominated rule. During the next decade, it actively supported movements such as the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA) under the independence war and under the subsequent civil war, the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) in Southern Rhodesia, the African National Congress (ANC) in their struggle against apartheid in South Africa, and the South-West Africa People's Organization (SWAPO) in their struggle for independence for Namibia. Zambia also hosted some of the movements. For instance, the ANC exile head quarters were in Lusaka, and ZAPU had a military base in Zambia. This resulted in security problems, as the South Africa and South Rhodesia raided targets inside Zambia on several occasions.

Conflicts with Rhodesia resulted in the closing of Zambia's borders with that country and severe problems with international transport and power supply. However, the Kariba hydroelectric station on the Zambezi River provided sufficient capacity to satisfy the country's requirements for electricity. TAZARA, a railroad to the Tanzanian port of Dar es Salaam, built with Chinese assistance, reduced Zambian dependence on railroad lines south to South Africa and west through an increasingly war ravaged Angola.

Civil strife in neighbouring Mozambique and Angola created large amounts of refugees, large numbers of whom fled to Zambia.

Internationally, Zambia was an active member of the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM), and hosted a summit in Lusaka in 1970 and Kenneth Kaunda served as the movements chairman 1970-1973. Among the NAM countries Zambia was especially close to Yugoslavia. Outside the NAM Zambia also had close relations with the Peoples Republic of China.

1991: Multiparty Democracy

The one party rule and the declining economy created disappointment among the people and several strikes hit the country in 1981. The government responded by arresting several union leaders, among them Frederick Chiluba. In 1986 and 1987 protests arose again in Lusaka and the Copperbelt. These were followed by riots over rising food prices in 1991, in which at least 30 people were killed. The same year the state owned radio claimed that Kaunda had been removed from office by the army. This was not true, and the coup attempt failed.

These extensive protests made Kaunda realise the need for reform. He promised a referendum on multiparty democracy, and lifted the ban on political parties. This resulted in the quick formation of eleven new parties. Among these Movement for Multiparty Democracy (MMD), led by former union leader Frederick Chiluba, was the most important. After pressure for the new parties the referendum was cancelled in favour for direct multiparty election.

After a new constitution had been drafted, elections were held in 1991. They were generally regarded to have been free and fair, and Chiluba won 76% of the presidential vote, and the MMD 125 of the 150 seats in the National Assembly, with the UNIP taking the remaining 25.

1991-2001: Zambia Under Chiluba

Economically Chiluba, despite being a former union leader, stood to the right of Kaunda. With support from the IMF and Worldbank, to which Zambia was heavily indebted, he liberalised the economy by restricting government interference, privatising state owned enterprise, such as the important copper mining industry, and removing subsidies on different commodities, most notably on corn meal.

When the one party rule first was abolished in 1991, many expected a more democratic future for Zambia. These expectations were however clouded by the MMD's treatment of the opposition. Questionable amendments of the constitution and detentions of political opponents caused major criticism, and some donor countries, such as the United Kingdom and Denmark, withdraw their aid.

Coups and Emergencies

In 1993, the government owned newspaper "The Times of Zambia" reported a story about a secret UNIP plan to take control of government by unconstitutional means, called the "Zero Operation Plan". The plan included industrial unrest, promotion of violence and organisations of mass protests. The UNIP did not deny the existence of such a plan, but underlined that it was not a part of their official policy, but the views of extremists within the party. The government responded by declaring a state of emergency and putting 26 people into detention. Seven of these detainees (including Kenneth Kaunda's son, Wezi Kaunda) were charged with offences against the security of the state. The rest were released.

Prior to the 1996 elections, the UNIP formed an alliance with six other opposition parties. Kenneth Kaunda had earlier retired from politics, but after internal turbulence in the party, due to the "Zero Operation Plan" scandal, he returned, replacing his own successor Kebby Musokotwane. Chiluba's government then amended the constitution, banning people whose parents were not both Zambian citizens from becoming president. This was directly aimed at Kaunda, whose parents were both from Malawi. In protest the UNIP and its allies boycotted the elections, which were then easily won by Chiluba and the MMD.

In 1997, matters escalated. On October 28 a coup d'etat took place, as a group of army commanders took control over the national radio station, broadcasting a message stating that Chiluba was no longer president. The coup was brought to an end by regular forces, after Chiluba had again declared a state of emergency. One person was killed during the operation. After the failed coup the police arrested at least 84 people accused of involvement. Among these were Kenneth Kaunda and Dean Mungomba, leader of the opposition party the Zambia Democratic Congress. The arrests were condemned and criticised as illegal inside as well as outside Zambia, and accusations of torture were also made. Kaunda was released in June the following year, but 44 of the soldiers who took part in the coup were sentenced to death in 2003.

2001 Elections

Early in 2001, supporters of President Chiluba mounted a campaign to amend the constitution to enable Chiluba to seek a third term of office. However, Civil society, opposition parties, and many members of the ruling party exerted sufficient pressure on Chiluba to force him to back away from any attempt at a third term.

Presidential, parliamentary and local government elections were held on December 27, 2001, with 11 parties contesting the elections. The elections encountered numerous administrative problems and opposition parties alleged that serious irregularities occurred. Nevertheless, MMD presidential candidate Levy Mwanawasa was declared the victor by a narrow margin, and he was sworn into office on January 2, 2002. Three parties submitted petitions to the High Court, challenging the election results.

2001 to Present: Zambia Under Mwanawasa

Since his election, the rule of Levy Mwanawasa has not been characterised by the flamboyant expenditure and increasingly apparent corruption of the later years of Frederick Chiluba's time in office. Indeed, the former president has been arrested and charged with several counts of embezzlement and corruption, firmly quashing initial fears that President Mwanawasa would turn a blind eye to the allegations of his predecessor's improprieties.

However, Mwanawasa demonstrated an authoritarian streak in early 2004 when he issued a deportation order to a British citizen and long-time Zambian resident Roy Clarke, who had published a satirical attack on the president in the Zambian Daily Mail. His early zeal to root out corruption has also waned somewhat, with key witnesses in the Chiluba trial leaving the country. The Constitutional Review Commission set up by Mwanawasa has also hit some turbulence, with arguments as to where its findings should be submitted leading to suspicions that he has been trying to manipulate the outcome.