Geography

India lies to the north of the equator between 8°4' and 37°6' north latitude and 68°7' and 97°25' east longitude. It is the seventh-largest country in the world, with a total land area of 3,287,263 square kilometres (1,269,219 sq mi), making it approximately one-third the size of the United States. India measures 3,214 km (1,997 mi) from north to south and 2,993 km (1,860 mi) from east to west. It has a land frontier of 15,200 km (9,445 mi) and a coastline of 7,517 km (4,671 mi).

India is bounded to the southwest by the Arabian Sea, to the southeast by the Bay of Bengal, and the Indian Ocean to the south. To the north, northeast, and northwest are the Himalayas. India is bordered by Pakistan and Afghanistan to the north-west, China, Bhutan and Nepal to the north, Myanmar to the east and Bangladesh to the east of West Bengal. Cape Cormin constitutes the southern tip of the mainland Indian peninsula, which narrows before ending in the Indian Ocean. The southernmost part of India is Indira Point in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the appropriate baseline. Sri Lanka, the Maldives and Indonesia are island nations to the south of India. Sri Lanka is separated from India by a narrow channel of sea formed by Palk Strait and the Gulf of Mannar.

The geography of India is diverse, with landscape ranging from snow-capped mountain ranges to deserts, plains, rainforests, hills and plateaus. India comprises most of the Indian subcontinent situated on the Indian Plate, the northerly portion of the Indo-Australian Plate.

The fertile Indo-Gangetic Plain occupies most of northern, central and eastern India, while the Deccan Plateau occupies most of southern India. To the west of the country is the Thar Desert, which consists of a mix of rocky and sandy desert. India's east and northeastern border consists of the high Himalayan range. The highest point in India is disputed due to a territorial dispute with Pakistan; according to India's claim, the highest point (located in the disputed Kashmir region) is K2, at 8,611 metres (28,251 ft). The highest point in undisputed Indian territory is Kangchenjunga, at 8,598 m (28,209 ft). Climate ranges from equatorial in the far south, to Alpine in the upper reaches of the Himalayas.

Geographical Regions

India is divided into seven geographic regions. They are as follows:

1. The Northern Mountains

A great arc of mountains, composed of the Himalaya, Hindu Kush, and Patkai ranges, define the Indian subcontinent. These mountains were formed by the ongoing tectonic collision of the Indian Plate with the Eurasian Plate which started some 50 million years ago. These mountain ranges are home to some of the tallest mountains in the world and provide a natural barrier against the cold polar winds. They also facilitate the monsoons winds drive climate in India. Rivers that originate in these mountains provide water to the fertile Indo-Gangetic plains. These mountains are recognised by biogeographers as the boundary between two of the earth's great ecozones; the temperate Palearctic that covers most of Eurasia, and the tropical and subtropical Indomalaya ecozone that includes the Indian subcontinent extending into Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Historically, these ranges have also served as barriers to invaders.

India has nine major mountain ranges having peaks of over 1,000 m (3,280 ft). The Himalayas are the only mountain ranges to have snow-capped peaks. These ranges are:

Aravali Range

The Aravali Range is the oldest mountain range in India, running from northeast to southwest across Rajasthan in western India, extending approximately 500 km (310 mi). The northern end of the range continues as isolated hills and rocky ridges into Haryana, ending near Delhi. The highest peak is Mount Abu, rising to 1,722 m (5,649 ft), lying near the southwestern extremity of the range, close to the border with Gujarat. The Aravali Range is the eroded stub of an ancient folded mountain system that was once snow-capped. The range rose in a Precambrian event called the Aravali-Delhi orogen. The range joins two of the ancient segments that make up the Indian craton, the Marwar segment to the northwest of the range, and the Bundelkhand segment to the southeast.

Eastern Ghats

The Eastern Ghats are a discontinuous range of mountains, which have been eroded and cut through by the four major rivers of southern India, the Godavari, Mahanadi, Krishna and Kaveri. These mountain ranges extend from West Bengal in the north, through Orissa and Andhra Pradesh to Tamil Nadu in the south. They run parallel to the Bay of Bengal. Though not as tall as the Western Ghats, though some of its peaks are over 1,000 m (3,280 ft) in height. The Eastern Ghats meet with the Western Ghats meet at the Nilgiri hills in Tamil Nadu.

Himalayas

The Himalaya mountain range is the world's highest mountain range. They form India's north-eastern border, separating it from the rest of Asia. The Himalayas are also one of the world's youngest mountain ranges, and extend almost uninterrupted for a distance of 2,500 m (8,202 ft), covering an area of 500,000 sq km (193,051 sq mi). The Himalayas extend from the state of Jammu and Kashmir in the west to the state of Arunachal Pradesh in the east. These states along with Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, and Sikkim lie mostly in the Himalayan region. Some of the Himalayan peaks range over 7,000 m (22,965 ft) and the snow line ranges between 6,000 m (19,685 ft) in Sikkim to around 3,000 m (9,842 ft) in Kashmir. Kangchenjunga, which lies on the Sikkim-Nepal border, is the highest point in the area administered by India. Most peaks in the Himalayas remain snowbound throughout the year.

The Shiwalik, or lower Himalaya, consists of smaller hills towards the Indian side. Most of the rock formations are young and highly unstable, with landslides being a regular phenomenon during the rainy season. Many of India's hill stations are located on this range. The climate varies from subtropical in the foothills to alpine at the higher elevations of these mountain ranges.

Karakoram

The Karakoram is home to more than sixty peaks above 7,000 m (22,960 ft), including K2, the second highest peak of the world (8,611 m, 28,244 ft). Most of these peaks are in the Hunza of Pakistan. The Karakoram is bounded on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau, and on the north by the Wakhan Corridor and the Pamir Mountains. Just to the west of the northwest end of the Karakoram lies the Hindu Raj range, beyond which is the Hindu Kush range. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed by the Gilgit, Indus, and Shyok Rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper.

Kunlun

The Kunlun mountain range is one of the longest mountain chains in Asia, extending more than 3,000 km. It runs eastwards along the northern part of Kashmir and the Tibetan plateau to form the border range of northern Kashmir wherein is situate the Yangi Pass in the Aksai Chin area in north eastern Ladakh in Kashmir, and the Hindutash Pass, which is the southern boundary of Khotan. Running southwest to northeast, the Altyn Tagh range in northwestern Tibet converges with the Kuen Lun range in Kashmir which runs southeast to northwest forming a "V" shape which converges at Pulu. The geographical divide between the highlands of Kashmir and the Tibetan Plateau commences in the vicinity of Pulu and continues southwards along the ridges situate east of Rudok , wherein are situate Aling Kangri and Mavang Kangri which separate the highlands of Kashmir in the Indian Sub-Continent from the Tibetan Plateau and culminates at Mayum La.

Patkai

The mountains on India's eastern border with Myanmar are called as the Patkai or the Purvanchal. They were created by the same tectonic processes that resulted in the formation of the Himalaya. The features of the Patkai ranges are conical peaks, steep slopes and deep valleys. The Patkai ranges are not as rugged or tall as the Himalayas. There are three hill ranges that come under the Patkai: The Patkai-Bum, the Garo-Khasi-Jaintia, and the Lushai hills. The Garo-Khasi range is in the state of Meghalaya. Cherrapunji, which lies on the windward side of these hills, has the distinction of being the wettest place in the world, receiving the highest annual rainfall.

Satpura Range

The Satpura Range is a range of hills in central India. It begins in eastern Gujarat near the Arabian Sea coast, then runs east across Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and ends in the state of Chhattisgarh. It extends for a distance of 900 km (559 mi) with many of its peaks rising above 1,000 m (3,280 ft). It is angular in shape, with its vertex at Ratnapuri and the two sides being parallel to the Tapti and Narmada rivers. It runs parallel to the Vindhya Range, which lies to the north, and these two east-west ranges divide the Indo-Gangetic plain of northern India from the Deccan Plateau lying in the south. The Narmada runs in the depression between the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and drains the northern slope of the Satpura range, running west towards the Arabian Sea.

Vindhya Range

The Vindhya range runs across most of central India, covering a distance of 1,050 km (652.4397516 mi). The average elevation of these hills is 3,000 m (9,842.5197 ft). They are believed to have been formed by the wastes created due to the weathering of the ancient Aravali mountains. It geographically separates northern India from southern India. The western end of the range lies in eastern Gujarat, near its border with the state of Madhya Pradesh, and the range runs east and north almost meeting the Ganges River at Mirzapur.

Western Ghats (Sahyadri)

The Western Ghats or Sahyadri mountains run along the western edge of India's Deccan Plateau, and separate it from a narrow coastal plain along the Arabian Sea. The range starts south of the Tapti River near the Gujarat-Maharashtra border, and runs approximately 1,600 km (994 mi) across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, and Tamil Nadu, almost to the southern tip of the Indian peninsula. The average elevation is around 1,000 m (3,280 ft). The Anai Mudi in the Cardamom Hills at 2,695 m (8,841 ft)in Kerala is the highest peak in the Western Ghats.

2. Indo-Gangetic Plain

The Indo-Gangetic plains are large floodplains of the Indus and the Ganga-Brahmaputra river systems. They run parallel to the Himalaya mountains, from Jammu and Kashmir in the west to Assam in the east, draining the states of Punjab, Haryana, eastern Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand and West Bengal. The plains encompass an area of 700,000 sq km (270,000 sq mi) and vary in width through their length by several hundred kilometres. Major rivers that form a part of this system are the Ganga (Ganges) and Indus River along with their tributaries; Beas, Yamuna, Gomti, Ravi, Chambal, Sutlej and Chenab.

The Indo-Gangetic belt is the world's most extensive expanse of uninterrupted alluvium formed by the deposition of silt by the numerous rivers. The plains are flat and mostly treeless, making it conducive for irrigation through canals. The area is also rich in ground water sources.

The plains are one of the world's most intensely farmed areas. Crops grown on the Indo-Gangetic Plain are primarily rice and wheat, grown in rotation. Other crops include maize, sugarcane and cotton.

3. Thar Desert

The Thar Desert (also known as the Great Indian Desert) is a hot desert that forms a significant portion of western India. Spread over four states in India - Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, and Gujarat it covers an area of 208,110 sq km (80,350 sq mi). The desert continues into Pakistan as the Cholistan Desert. Most of the Thar Desert is situated in Rajasthan, covering 61% of its geographic area. Most of the desert is rocky, with a small part of the extreme west of the desert being sandy.

The origin of the Thar Desert is uncertain. Some geologists consider it to be 4,000 to 10,000 years old, whereas others state that aridity began in this region much earlier. The area is characterised by extreme temperatures of above 45 °C (113 °F) in summer to below freezing in winters. Rainfall is precarious and erratic, ranging from below 120 mm (4.72 inches) in the extreme west to 375 mm (14.75 inches) eastward. The lack of rainfall is mainly due to the unique position of the desert with respect to the Aravalli range. The desert lies in the rain shadow area of the Bay of Bengal arm of the southwest monsoon. The parallel nature of the range to the Arabian Sea arm also means that the desert does not receive much rainfall.

The desert can be divided into two regions, the great Desert and the little desert. The great Desert extends northwards from the edge of the Rann of Kutch region of Gujarat. The little desert extends from the River Luni between the towns of Jodhpur and Jaisalmer, up to the northern areas. The soils of the arid region are generally sandy to sandy-loam in texture. The consistency and depth vary according to the topographical features. The low-lying loams are heavier and may have a hard pan of clay, calcium carbonate or gypsum. Due to the low population density, the effect of the population on the environment is relatively less compared to the rest of India.

4. Central Highlands

The Central Highlands are composed of three main plateaus - the Malwa Plateau in the west, the Deccan Plateau in the south, (covering most of the Indian peninsula); and the Chota Nagpur Plateau in Jharkhand towards the east.

The Deccan Plateau is a large triangular plateau, bounded by the Vindhyas to the north and flanked by the Eastern and Western Ghats. The Deccan covers a total area of 1.9 million sq km (735,000 sq mi). It is mostly flat, with elevations ranging from 300 to 600 m (1,000 to 2,000 feet). The name Deccan comes from the Sanskrit word dakshina, which means 'the south'. The plateau slopes gently from west to east and gives rise to several peninsular rivers such as the Godavari, the Krishna, the Kaveri and the Narmada. This region is mostly semi-arid as it lies on the leeward side of both Ghats. Much of the Deccan is covered by thorn scrub forest scattered with small regions of deciduous broadleaf forest. Climate ranges from hot summers to mild winters.

The Chota Nagpur Plateau is a plateau in eastern India, which covers much of Jharkhand state as well as adjacent parts of Orissa, Bihar, and Chhattisgarh. The total area of Chota Nagpur Plateau is approximately 65,000 sq km (25,000 sq mi). The Chota Nagpur Plateau is made up of three smaller plateaus, the Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus. The Ranchi plateau is the largest of the plateaus, with an average elevation of 700 m (2,300 feet). Much of the plateau is forested, covered by the Chota Nagpur dry deciduous forests. The plateau is famous for its vast reserves of ores and coal.

5. East Coast

The Eastern Coastal Plain is a wide stretch of land lying between the Eastern Ghats and the Bay of Bengal. It stretches from Tamil Nadu in the south to West Bengal in the north. Deltas of many of India's rivers form a major portion of these plains. The Mahanadi, Godavari, Kaveri and Krishna rivers drain these plains. The region receives both the Northeast and Southwest monsoon rains with its annual rainfall averaging between 1,000 mm (40 in) and 3,000 mm (120 in). The width of the plains varies between 100 to 130 km (62 to 80 miles).

The plains are divided into six regions: The Mahanadi delta; the southern Andhra Pradesh plain; the Krishna Godavari deltas; the Kanyakumari coast; Coromandel Coast and sandy coastal.

6. West Coast

The Western Coastal Plain is a narrow strip of land sandwiched between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. The strip begins in Gujarat in the north and extends across the states of Maharashtra, Goa, Karnataka and Kerala. The plains are narrow, and range from 50 to 100 km (30 to 60 miles) in width.

Small rivers and numerous backwaters inundate the region. The rivers, which originate in the Western Ghats, are fast flowing and are mostly perennial. The fast flowing nature of the rivers results in the formation of estuaries rather than deltas. Major rivers flowing into the sea are the Tapi, Narmada, Mandovi and Zuari.

The coast is divided into three regions. The northern region of Maharashtra and Goa is known as the Konkan Coast, the central region of Karnataka is known as the Kanara Coast and the southern coastline of Kerala is known as the Malabar Coast. Vegetation in this region is mostly deciduous. The Malabar Coast has its own unique ecoregion known as the Malabar Coast moist forests.

7. Bordering Seas and Islands

India has two major offshore island possessions: the Lakshadweep islands and the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. Both these island groups are administered by the Union government of India as Union Territories.

The Andaman and Nicobar island chain lies in the Bay of Bengal near the Myanmar coast. It is located 950 km (590 miles) from Kolkata (Calcutta) and 193 km (120 miles) from Cape Negrais in Myanmar. The territory consists of two island groups, the Andaman Islands and the Nicobar Islands. The Andaman islands consist of 204 islands having a total length of 352 km (220 miles). The Nicobar Islands, which lie south of the Andamans, consists of twenty-two islands with a total area of 1,841 sq km (710 sq mi). The highest point is Mount Thullier at 642 m (2,140 feet). Indira Point, India's southernmost land point is situated in the Nicobar islands, and lies just 189 km (117 miles) from the Indonesian island of Sumatra to the southeast.

The Lakshadweep islands lie 200 to 300 km (124 to 186 miles) off the coast of Kerala in the Arabian Sea. It consists of twelve coral atolls, three coral reefs and five banks. Ten of these islands are inhabited.

Significant islands just off the Indian coast include Diu, a former Portuguese exclave; Majuli, Asia's largest freshwater island; Salcette Island, India's most populous island, on which Mumbai (Bombay) city is located; Elephanta in Bombay Harbour; and Sriharikota barrier island in Andhra Pradesh.

Rivers

All major rivers of India originate from one of the three main watersheds. They are:

• The Himalaya and the Karakoram ranges
• Vindhya and Satpura range in central India
• Sahyadri or Western Ghats in western India

The Himalayan river networks are snow-fed and have a continuous flow throughout the year. The other two networks are dependent on the monsoons and shrink into rivulets during the dry season.

Twelve of India's rivers are classified as major, with the total catchment area exceeding 2,528,000 sq km (976,000 sq mi).

Himalayan rivers or the northern rivers that flow westward into Pakistan are the Indus, Beas, Chenab, Ravi, Sutlej, and Jhelum.

The Ganga-Brahmaputra-Meghana system has the largest catchment area of 1,100,000 sq km (424,700 sq mi). The river Ganga originates at the Gangotri Glacier in Uttarakhand. It flows in a south easterly direction, draining into Bangladesh. The Yamuna and Gomti rivers also arise in the Western Himalayas and join the Ganga river in the plains. The Brahmaputra, another tributary of the Ganga originates in Tibet and enters India in the far eastern state of Arunachal Pradesh. It then proceeds westwards, unifying with the Ganga in Bangladesh.

The Chambal, another tributary of the Ganga originates from the Vindhya-Satpura watershed. The river flows eastward. Westward flowing rivers from this watershed are the Narmada (also called Nerbudda) and Tapti (also spelled Tapi) rivers which drain into the Arabian Sea in Gujarat. The river network that flows from east to west constitutes 10% of the total outflow.

The Western Ghats are the source of all Deccan rivers. Major rivers in the Deccan include the Mahanadi River through the Mahanadi River Delta, Godavari River, Krishna River, and Kaveri River (also spelled Cauvery), all draining into the Bay of Bengal. These rivers constitute 20% of India's total outflow.

Bodies of Water

Major gulfs include the Gulf of Cambay, Gulf of Kutch and the Gulf of Mannar. Straits include the Palk Strait which separates India from Sri Lanka and the Ten Degree Channel, separating the Andamans from the Nicobar Islands and the Eight Degree Channel separating the Laccadive and Amindivi Islands from Minicoy Island towards the south. Important capes include the Cape Comorin, the southern tip of mainland India, Indira Point, the southernmost location of India, Rama's Bridge and Point Calimere. Arabian Sea is to the west of India. Bay of Bengal is to the eastern side of India while India Ocean is to the South of India.

Smaller seas include the Laccadive Sea and the Andaman Sea. There are four coral reefs in India and are located in; the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Gulf of Mannar, Lakshadweep and Gulf of Kutch.

Important lakes include Chilka Lake, the country's largest salt-water lake in Orissa; Kolleru Lake in Andhra Pradesh; Loktak Lake in Manipur, Dal Lake in Kashmir, Sambhar Lake in Rajasthan, and the Sasthamkotta Lake in Kerala.

Wetlands

India's wetland ecosystem is widely distributed from the cold and arid; from ones in the Ladakh regional in the state of Jammu and Kashmir to the ones in the wet and humid climate of peninsula India. Most of the wetlands are directly or indirectly linked to India's river networks. The Indian government has identified a total of 22 wetlands for conservation. Among the protected wetlands are the tropical mangrove forests in peninsular India and the salt mudflats in western India.

Mangrove forests occur all along the Indian coastline, in sheltered estuaries, creeks, backwaters, salt marshes and mud flats. The mangrove area covers a total of 6,740 sq km (2,600 sq mi) which comprises 7% of the world's total mangrove cover. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands; the Sundarbans; Gulf of Kutch; deltas of the Mahanadi, Godavari and Krishna; and parts of Maharashtra, Karnataka and Kerala have large mangrove covers.

Most of the identified wetlands adjoin or are parts of sanctuaries, national parks and are thus protected.

The Sundarbans

The Sundarbans delta is the largest mangrove forest in the world. It lies at the mouth of the Ganges and is spread across areas of Bangladesh and West Bengal, India. The Bangladeshi and Indian portions of the jungle are listed in the UNESCO world heritage list separately as the Sundarbans and Sundarbans National Park respectively, though they are parts of the same forest. The Sundarbans are intersected by a complex network of tidal waterways, mudflats and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests, and presents an excellent example of ongoing ecological processes.

The area is known for its wide range of fauna. The most famous among these is the Bengal Tiger, but numerous species of birds, spotted deer, crocodiles and snakes also inhabit it. It is estimated that there are now 400 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area.

Rann of Kutch

The Rann of Kutch is a marshy region located in the Gujarat state of India, which borders the Sindh region of Pakistan. The name Rann comes from the Hindi word ran meaning 'salt marsh.' It occupies a total area of 27,900 sq km (10,800 sq mi).

The region was originally a part of the Arabian Sea. Geologic forces, most likely by earthquakes, resulted in the damming up of the region, turning it into a large salt-water lagoon. This area gradually filled with silt thus turning it into a seasonal salt marsh. During the monsoons, the area turns into a shallow marsh, often flooding to knee-depth height. After the monsoons, the region turns dry and becomes parched.

Natural Resources

India is particularly rich in a variety of natural resources. Along with 56% arable land, it has significant sources of Coal (fourth-largest reserves in the world), Iron ore, Manganese, Mica, Bauxite, Titanium ore, Chromite, Natural gas, Diamonds, Petroleum, Limestone, Thorium (world's largest along Kerala's shores).

Petroleum is found off the coast of Maharashtra, Gujarat and in Assam, but meets only 40% of India's demand. Increasing amounts of natural gas are being discovered regularly especially off the coast of Andhra Pradesh. Uranium is mined in Andhra Pradesh and gold in the Kolar Gold Fields in Karnataka.